Climate Change and the Geography of Extreme Heat: Spatial Patterns, Urban Vulnerability and Adaptation Strategies

Abstract

Extreme heat has emerged as one of the most geographically extensive and socially consequential manifestations of contemporary climate change. Rising global mean temperatures are altering the frequency, intensity, duration, and spatial distribution of heatwaves, while urbanization is amplifying thermal exposure through the urban heat-island effect. The geographical dimensions of extreme heat are therefore shaped not only by atmospheric warming but also by land-use change, urban morphology, vegetation cover, socioeconomic inequality, infrastructure quality, and population distribution. The World Meteorological Organization reports that 2015–2025 constituted the eleven hottest years on record and that 2025 was approximately 1.43°C above the 1850–1900 average, demonstrating the persistence of exceptionally high global temperatures.

This research paper examines extreme heat through a geographical perspective, focusing on spatial patterns, urban vulnerability, socioeconomic inequalities, environmental justice, and adaptation strategies. It reviews how heat exposure differs between climatic regions, cities, neighborhoods, and population groups. Particular attention is given to densely built environments, impervious surfaces, limited vegetation, inadequate housing, outdoor employment, and unequal access to cooling. The paper also considers the increasing role of Geographic Information Systems (GIS), remote sensing, satellite-derived land-surface temperature, spatial modelling, and emerging GeoAI techniques in identifying heat-risk hotspots. The analysis demonstrates that extreme heat is not merely a meteorological phenomenon but a spatially differentiated social and environmental risk. Effective adaptation therefore requires geographically targeted interventions combining urban greening, reflective surfaces, heat-health warning systems, climate-responsive planning, improved housing, accessible cooling infrastructure, and protection of vulnerable populations. The paper concludes that heat-resilient geography must integrate climate science with urban planning, public health, social equity, and participatory governance.